LENR Products: Lattice Confinement Fusion (LCF), Fission, or Both?

International Conference on Condensed Matter Nuclear Science ICCF-25, August 31, 2023.

Theresa L. Benyo, Principal Investigator, Lattice Confinement Fusion Project, NASA Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, OH. Pamela Mosier-Boss and Lawrence Forsley, Global Energy Corporation, Annandale, VA. Wayne Jennings, HX5, LLC, Cleveland, OH. Bruce Steinetz, Gus Fralick and Robert Hendricks, NASA Glenn Research Center, Cleveland, OH.

Abstract

Lattice Confinement Fusion (LCF) or Low Energy Nuclear Reactions (LENR) generate heat from the high energy products they produce. Conventionally, d-d fusion reactions may produce either 2.45 MeV neutrons, 3 MeV protons, or high energy gammas. Generally, fission will give 5-10x the excess energy of fusion. However, aneutronic "cold fusion" would provide 24 MeV/reaction, D(d,γ)⁴He, where the gamma is suppressed. In a series of pressurized gas cycling experiments with a palladium silver (75 wt.% Pd and 25 wt.% Ag or Pd25Ag) alloy, samples cycled with deuterium showed excess heat via unexplained temperature rises. Post-test analysis of the Pd25Ag samples using a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM/EDX) showed several molten features containing anomalous elements other than Pd and Ag. Researchers such as Liu et al have also observed transmutations under similar conditions. These molten areas and anomalous elements suggest Pd fission. This nuclear process has been referred to as nuclear disintegration. Either nuclear fission or disintegration may result in neutron rich fragments. The fragments would rapidly beta decay to shorter lived daughters until they reach stability.

We've observed evidence of both fusion and fission products. Figure 1 shows neutron spectroscopy showing fusion and boosted neutron energies in bremsstrahlung-initiated fusion of TiD2. Figure 2 shows possible fission products from D2 gas cycled Pd25Ag alloy.

Alternatively, Oppenheimer-Phillips stripping reactions, enhanced by electron screening may also occur. In this case, the 8.6 MeV binding energy per Pd or Ag minus the 2.2 MeV deuteron binding energy leaves 6.4 MeV distributed between the reaction products. The energy is shared inversely proportional to the masses of the stripped off nucleon, p or n, and the new target nucleus.

Outline of Talk

• Overview of LENR Products and Lattice Confinement Fusion (LCF)
• Gas Cycling Experiments
  • Observed anomalous behavior when cycling deuterium with Pd/Ag tube
  • Suspected Pd fission from high energy neutrons from LCF
• Bremsstrahlung Irradiation Experiments
  • Neutron spectroscopy showed evidence of dd fusion and higher energy neutrons
  • Gamma spectroscopy showed evidence of uranium fission products
• Electrolytic Wet Cell Experiments
  • Evidence of dd fusion and higher energy neutrons
  • Observed transmutation products on outer co-deposition layer
• Transmutation Theories
  • Electron Screened Fusion
  • Possible Fission Pairs
  • Hybrid Fusion Fission
• Summary

Overview of LENR Products and Lattice Confinement Fusion

| Fusion Reaction | MeV | Occurrence | Useful particle energy (MeV) | |---|---|---|---| | D(d,n)³He | 4.00 | primary, about 50% | n = 2.45 | | D(d,p)T | 3.25 | primary, about 50% | p = 3.00 | | D(³He,p)α | 18.30 | secondary | p = 15.00 | | D(t,n)α | 17.60 | secondary | n = 14.10 | | T(t,α)2n | 11.30 | low probability | n = 1 to 9 | | ³He(³He,α)2p | 12.86 | low probability | p = 1 to 10 |

Lattice electron screening: a cloud of electrons makes the D look like a neutral particle and no repulsion exists. Inside the lattice there is hot He-3, cold D and hot d.

• Part A: Electron Screening (increases fusion probability)
• Part B: High Fuel Density (billion times more dense than traditional fusion), plus a trigger
• A + B + Trigger = Viable Fusion

Gas Cycling Experiments: Description

High flux of D through Pd/Ag hydride system:

• Test Article: Johnson-Matthey (JM) hydrogen purifier
• Inspired by electrolytic wet cell experiments and LENR claims, Gustave Fralick (1989) used JM purifier to load Pd with D2
  • Easier than loading D2 during a wet cell experiment
  • Very little neutrons above background observed
  • Observed temp rise of 17 °C in 15 sec unloading D2 but not with H2
• Experiments in 2014 and 2018: pressurized cycling of D2 gas produces heat and surface transmutations on PdAg tubing; evidence of LENR

Repeat of temperature rise during D2 gas unloading:

• 1989: 17 °C temp rise in 15 s
• 2009: 5 °C temp rise
• 2012: 25 °C temp rise
• 2014: 25 °C temp rise in 4 s
• 2018: 12 °C temp rise in 45 s

The 1989 experimental setup showed the JM Purifier at centre with 2 SNOOPY neutron detectors, one on either side of the purifier. The gas circuit ran from the D2 supply (control gas) to an evacuated K-bottle holding the experiment's reacted gas.

Gas Cycling Experiments: Bulk Analysis

• Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy
  • Elemental bulk analysis of PdAg tubing
  • Elevated levels of Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn detected in exposed PdAg tubing

| Element | Control/Unexposed | Exposed | Change | Units | |---|---|---|---|---| | Ag | 25.0 | 24.9 | –0.1 | wt% | | Pd | 75.0 | 75.1 | +0.1 | wt% | | Al | 30 | 30 | 0 | ppm | | Cr | Not detected | 2 | +2 | ppm | | Cu | 20 | 140 | +120 | ppm | | Fe | 20 | 40 | +20 | ppm | | Mg | 1 | 1 | 0 | ppm | | Mn | Not detected | 0.5 | +0.5 | ppm | | Na | 2 | 2 | 0 | ppm | | Pt | 105 | 105 | 0 | ppm | | Si | 40 | 30 | –10 | ppm | | Zn | Not detected | 285 | +285 | ppm |

Gas Cycling Experiments: Surface Analysis Comparison

• Unexposed PdAg tube: mostly Pd, Ag with trace of Fe, Si, and Al.
• Exposed PdAg tube: Fe, Cr and Cu spots with overall spread of Zn.
• Created a "trench" with Ga ions to identify area for ToF-SIMS analysis.

Unexposed tube:

| Element | Line Type | Wt% | Wt% s | |---|---|---|---| | Pd | L series | 72.47 | 0.04 | | Ag | L series | 26.31 | 0.03 | | O | K series | 1.06 | 0.03 | | Si | K series | 0.08 | 0.00 | | Fe | K series | 0.04 | 0.01 | | Al | K series | 0.04 | 0.01 | | Total | | 100.00 | |

Exposed tube:

| Element | Line Type | Wt% | Wt% s | |---|---|---|---| | Pd | L series | 62.95 | 0.14 | | Ag | L series | 17.32 | 0.12 | | Zn | K series | 11.20 | 0.07 | | O | K series | 3.44 | 0.12 | | Cu | K series | 3.10 | 0.04 | | Fe | K series | 1.34 | 0.03 | | Ni | K series | 0.53 | 0.03 | | Cr | K series | 0.13 | 0.02 | | Total | | 100.00 | |

ToF SIM Spectroscopy: Isotopic Surface Analysis

Isotopic distribution of Pd and Ag, mapped at 100 μm: ¹⁰⁶Pd, ¹⁰⁸Pd, ¹⁰⁵Pd, ¹¹⁰Pd, ¹⁰⁷Ag, ¹⁰⁹Ag, together with ⁶⁵Cu and ⁵⁸Ni.

Note: ToF-SIMS is qualitative though very sensitive.

A second set of maps, also at 100 μm, shows ⁵⁴Cr, ⁵⁸Ni, ⁶³Cu, ⁶⁵Cu, ⁵⁶Fe, ⁵²Cr and ⁶⁴Zn.

Bremsstrahlung Irradiation Experiments: Description

Objective:

• Investigate volumetric screening of deuterated targets exposed to gamma-ray photons at sub-threshold (below 2.226 MV D-photo-dissociation) and higher energies up to 3 MV.

Steinetz et al., 2020, Phys Rev C 101, 044610.

Bremsstrahlung Irradiation Experiments: Neutron Spectroscopy

Findings:

• Exposure of TiD2 and ErD3 to a 2.9 MV beam resulted in dd fusion and higher energy neutrons
  • Energetic neutrons transfer KE to stationary deuterons; energize deuterons and with electron screening, fuse with stationary deuterons in metal lattice (dd fusion)
  • Subsequent fusion reactions take place due to boosted or Oppenheimer-Phillips neutrons as evidenced by neutron spectroscopy data

Steinetz et al., 2020, Phys Rev C 101, 044610.

Bremsstrahlung Irradiation Experiments: Gamma Spectroscopy

Findings:

• Exposure of DUD3 to 6 MV beam resulted in fission products
  • Energetic neutrons from dd fusion reactions and subsequent reactions create boosted or Oppenheimer-Phillips neutrons
  • Those higher energy neutrons then fission the irradiated DU as evidenced by gamma spectroscopy
  • Fission products include:
    • ¹⁴⁰Ba, ¹⁴⁰La
    • ¹³⁵I, ¹³⁴I, ¹³³I, ¹³²I, ¹³²Te
    • ¹³⁵Xe, ¹³⁵ᵐXe
    • ⁹²Sr, ⁹¹Sr, ⁹²Y, ⁹¹ᵐY
    • ⁸⁷Kr

Electrolytic Wet Cell Experiments: Description

Objective:

• Evaluate bubble detectors as real-time dosimeters monitoring the co-deposition process, install neutron spectroscopy to evaluate the neutron product energies, and determine if there are neutron emissions above background levels

Findings:

• Exposure to low electric currents (below 500 mA) resulted in dd fusion (2.45 MeV) and higher energy neutrons

Electrolytic Experiments: Neutron Detection

• 2.45 MeV
• Blue: Experimental Data; Red: Background/Control Data
• 4 MeV maybe??
• Fusion Scaling: Periodically Rebuild the Nuclear Active Environment
• First 2 hours: DD fusion and boosted fusion
• Third 2 hours
• Fusion neutrons emphasized in first 2 hours

Electrolytic Experiments: SEM Analysis

• SEM/EDS of Cathode
  • Interesting Calcium Peroxide spots on surface of co-dep layer

Transmutation Theories: Fissioning of Resulting Unstable Isotopes

• Takahasi: Photofissioning of Pd
  • Pairs such as Fe+Ca and Ti+Cr
  • Nuclear excitation by low-energy, high-flux photons
  • Electrolysis experiments
• Fissioning of fused d-Pd or d-Ag; unstable Ag or Cd
  • Many pairs are possible with one of the pairs undergoing beta decay often many times to a stable isotope
  • These isotope pairs have been observed on post-test PdAg alloy samples as well as others
    • Fe+Ti; Mn+Cr; Fe+Cr

Transmutation Theories: Fission Parameter

• Non-actinide palladium deuteride (Z=46) has a fission threshold below 10 MeV despite expected 50 MeV fission barrier height
• The electrostatic Coulomb to strong force "fissility" relationship (which was initially derived for characterizing spontaneous fission), Z²/A above 17, holds as low a Z as strontium (⁸⁴Sr, Z=38, Z²/A=17.2)
• However, parameter was based upon the "liquid drop" nuclear model developed for actinides
• Fissility relationship Z²/A above 17; for ¹⁰⁵Pd (Z=46) = 20.15 and for ¹⁰⁷Ag (Z=47) = 20.65, hence are both potentially fissile

Transmutation Theories: How Do We Fission Pd?

• Actinides: Traditional Fission
  • Thermal neutron fission for odd A nuclei (²³⁵U, ²³⁹Pu) and fast neutron fission for even and odd A nuclei (²³⁵U, ²³⁹Pu, ²³²Th, ²³⁸U)
• PdD system
  • Fission is possible via absorption of a nucleon
    • Neutron absorption result in release of about 8 MeV of binding energy is shared as KE amongst nucleons
    • O-P reaction: aMz(D,p)n+a+1Mz; KE of p above 6 MeV
  • Certain fusion reactions generate 14 MeV neutrons and 15 MeV protons
  • Pd fission barrier is near the top, requiring about 40-50 MeV to fission
  • However, ¹⁰⁵Pd has oblate nucleus with Jp=5/2+
  • Gamma excitation enables sub-threshold fission

Transmutation Theories: Fissioning of Unstable Isotope Ag

• ⁶⁴Zn and ⁴⁴Ca
  • ¹⁰⁶Pd + ²D → ¹⁰⁸Ag* → ⁶⁴Zn + ⁴⁴Cl
  • ⁴⁴Cl beta decays to stable ⁴⁴Ca
• ⁶⁵Cu and ⁴³Ca
  • ¹⁰⁶Pd + ²D → ¹⁰⁸Ag* → ⁶⁵Cu + ⁴³Ar
  • ⁴³Ar beta decays to stable ⁴³Ca
• ⁵²Cr and ⁵⁸Ni (observed in ToF-SIMS data)
  • ¹⁰⁸Pd + ²D → ¹¹⁰Ag* → ⁵²K + ⁵⁶Ni
  • ⁵²K beta decays to ⁵²Ca → ⁵²Sc → ⁵²Ti → ⁵²V and then to stable ⁵²Cr
• ⁵²Cr and ⁵⁶Fe (observed in ToF-SIMS data)
  • ¹⁰⁶Pd + ²D → ¹⁰⁸Ag* → ⁵²Cr + ⁵⁶V
  • ⁵⁶V beta decays to stable ⁵⁶Fe

Transmutation Theories: Fissioning of Unstable Isotope Cd

• ⁴⁹Ti and ⁶⁰Fe
  • ¹⁰⁷Ag + ²D → ¹⁰⁹Cd* → ⁶⁰Fe + ⁴⁹Ti
  • ⁶⁰Fe has a 2.62 × 10⁶ year half life
• ⁵⁴Cr and ⁵⁷Fe (observed in ToF-SIMS data; 2 pathways possible)
  • ¹⁰⁹Ag + ²D → ¹¹¹Cd* → ⁵⁴Cr + ⁵⁷Cr
  • ⁵⁷Cr beta decays (half life of 21.1 s) to ⁵⁷Mn (half life of 85 s) and then stable ⁵⁷Fe
  • ¹⁰⁹Ag + ²D → ¹¹¹Cd* → ⁵⁴Ti + ⁵⁷Fe
  • ⁵⁴Ti beta decays (half life of 2.1 s) to ⁵⁴V (half life of 49 s) and then stable ⁵⁴Cr
• ⁵³Cr and ⁵⁸Fe (2 pathways possible)
  • ¹⁰⁹Ag + ²D → ¹¹¹Cd* → ⁵³Cr + ⁵⁸Cr
  • ⁵⁸Cr beta decays (half life of 7 s) to ⁵⁸Mn (half life of 3 s) and then stable ⁵⁸Fe
  • ¹⁰⁹Ag + ²D → ¹¹¹Cd* → ⁵³Ti + ⁵⁸Fe
  • ⁵³Ti beta decays (half life of 33 s) to ⁵³V (half life of 1.5 min) and then stable ⁵³Cr

Transmutation Theories: Hybrid Fusion-Fast Fission

• Takes advantage of both processes
  • Fusion reactions provide the neutrons to fission non-fissile material
  • Require about 2 MeV neutrons to fission Th and natural U
  • Fusion reactions can provide up to 14.1 MeV neutrons

| Fusion Reaction | MeV | Occurrence | Useful particle energy (MeV) | |---|---|---|---| | D(d,n)³He | 4.00 | primary, about 50% | n = 2.45 | | D(d,p)T | 3.25 | primary, about 50% | p = 3.00 | | D(³He,p)α | 18.30 | secondary | p = 15.00 | | D(t,n)α | 17.60 | secondary | n = 14.10 | | T(t,α)2n | 11.30 | low probability | n = 1 to 9 | | ³He(³He,α)2p | 12.86 | low probability | p = 1 to 10 |

| Fission Reaction | MeV | Occurrence | Useful particle energy (MeV) | |---|---|---|---| | ²³²Th(n,γ)f | 200 | high probability | n = 1 to 9 | | ²³²Th(p,γ)f | 200 | some probability | p = 1 to 10 | | ²³⁸U(n,γ)f | 200 | high probability | n = 1 to 9 | | ²³⁸U(p,γ)f | 200 | some probability | p = 1 to 10 |

Summary

• Transmutations observed with deuterium gas cycling of PdAg alloy with various material analysis techniques
• Fusion and higher energy neutrons and fission products detected with bremsstrahlung irradiation experiments
• Transmutations observed with electrolytic wet cell co-deposition of PdCl2/LiCl on cathode wires
• Electron screening greatly reduces Coulomb barrier facilitating deuteron/proton capture by Pd or Ag isotope
• Capture causes resulting isotope to be unstable
  • Unstable enough to cause fissioning?
  • Possibly another yet unknown vehicle assists with fissioning of the unstable isotope
• Many fission pair possibilities exist
• Additional experiments are needed to confirm the working fusion/fission theory

Acknowledgement

Special thanks to Bayar Baramsai (HX5 at NASA GRC) and Philip Ugorowski (HX5 at NASA GRC) for analyzing the neutron spectroscopy data.

LCF Research Funding Provided by: NASA HQ Space Technology Mission Directorate, NASA Advanced Innovative Concepts (NIAC); NASA HQ Science Mission Directorate, Planetary Science Division (PSD) and Planetary Exploration Science Technology Office (PESTO).

Backup

Transmutation Theories: Electron Screening

• Electron screening results in a more transparent Coulomb Barrier, shifting the Gamow Factor, as if deuterons were at far higher energies
• This exponentially increases fusion rates
• Laboratory astrophysics using accelerated deuteron beams across the Periodic Table show lattice and plasma screening provide up to 3+ keV screening
• From LCF Theory development, a higher probability of large angle scattering of screened charged particles results on screened deuterons

Screening enhances d-d reaction rates by over 10 orders of magnitude. However, screening is only effective below 10 keV.

Electrolytic Experiments: Tritium Detection

• Run #5 started on July 8
  • Bubble detectors added
    • EXP: 20 bubbles vs CNTRL: 10 bubbles
  • LBS Data indicates tritium present
    • 10 min scan and 30 min scan

CIF5 Cell #4 Net Counts, 0-25 keV, Electrolytic Wet Cell, LBS Scan, Lumex 0.44, 10 min scan on 8-22-22. CIF5 Cell #4 Net Counts, 0-25 keV, Electrolytic Wet Cell, LBS Scan, Lumex 0.25, 30 min scan on 8-22-22. CIF5 Cell #4, Blank D2O, CIF5 Cell 4 Gross Count.

Transmutation Theory: Electron Screened d-Ag or d-Pd Fusion

• Zuppero and Dolan
  • Heavy electrons and 3-body interactions
• Pines and Pines (NASA GRC work)
  • Electron screening theory (described in previous slide)
• Possible for deuteron to be completely "consumed" by either Pd or Ag with enough electron screening to overcome the Coulomb barrier
• d-Pd and d-Ag reactions that follow conservation laws:
  • ¹⁰⁶Pd + ²D → ¹⁰⁸Ag* (Q = 10.83 MeV)
  • ¹⁰⁸Pd + ²D → ¹¹⁰Ag* (Q = 11.08 MeV)
  • ¹⁰⁵Pd + ²D → ¹⁰⁷ᵐAg (Q = 13.13 MeV)
  • ¹⁰⁴Pd + ²D → ¹⁰⁶Ag* (Q = 10.86 MeV)
  • ¹⁰⁷Ag + ²D → ¹⁰⁹Cd* (Q = 13.24 MeV)
  • ¹⁰⁹Ag + ²D → ¹¹¹Cd* (Q = 13.67 MeV)

Inert Gas as Insight to Pd Fission Paths

Neon or Krypton unstable with too many neutrons, followed by beta decay.

• Beta Decays are all milli-sec to at most hours with very few showing gamma radiation (nature hides her tracks)
• Materials: SEM/EDS saw Na, Mg, Al, Si, plus Sr and others in J-M Tube bundle

References

1. G. Fralick, et al., "Transmutations observed from pressure cycling palladium silver metals with deuterium gas", International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, vol. 45, no. 56, pp. 32320-32330, 2020.
2. B. Liu, et al., "Nuclear transmutation on a thin Pd film in a gas-loading D/Pd system", J. of Condensed Matter Nuclear Science, 13, pp. 311–318, 2014.
3. P. J. Smith, et al., "Electrolytic co-deposition neutron production measured by bubble detectors", J. Electroanal. Chem. 882 (2021) 115024.
4. V. Pines, et al., "Nuclear fusion reactions in deuterated materials", Phys Rev C, 101, 044609, 2020.
5. A. Takahasi, M. Ohta, and T. Mizuno, "Production of stable isotopes by selective channel photofission of Pd", Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 40, pp. 7031-7046, 2001.
6. R. Wisniewski, et al., "Deuteron Disintegration, Thermonuclear and Nuclear Fission Reactions Induced by γ Quanta in D-Saturated Palladium and Dense Deuterium Gas with Synthesis of New Structures", Journal of Surface Investigation: X-ray, Synchrotron and Neutron Techniques, 7 (2) (2013) 239–247.
7. K.N. Mukhin, "Experimental Nuclear Physics: Volume I, Physics of Atomic Nucleus", Mir Publishers (Moscow) (1987) 467. Translated from the 1983 Russian version.